Kali on AWS

Kali Linux is an incredibly useful distribution for security testing and also open source intelligence gathering. While you can certainly install Kali on a hardware-based system or even in a virtual machine, you can also take advantage of the work other companies have already done. This includes Amazon Web Services (AWS). You don’t have to build an image or install a hypervisor. You just connect to AWS and launch an EC2 instance from the AWS marketplace. We’re going to work through that here, showing you how simple the process is.

This assumes you have an AWS account, which is very easy to setup if you already have an Amazon account and who doesn’t have one of those? I assume everyone else is spending entirely too much money buying stuff that just shows up at your door, just because it takes no thought and almost no effort. I’m not going to walk through the process of creating an account. It should be straightforward enough.

Once you have logged into the AWS portal, you should go to the Instances page from the link on the left hand side. From there, you will see a big blue button that says Launch Instance. This will take you to Step 1 where you will select an AMI image. If you search for Kali, you will find there are several community images as well as one marketplace image. Use the marketplace image, as you can see below.

Once you have selected Kali Linux as your AMI, you will need to select the size of your system. You can definitely select as large a machine as you want, but if you want to go cheap and don’t plan on doing a lot of high-intensity computing, you can use the free tier system, as shown below. This is a t2.micro type with a single CPU and only 1G of memory. You aren’t going to be doing a lot with a system this small but for just playing around with Kali, it should be ample.

This will create a new instance of the Kali Linux image, after which you will need to create authentication credentials. This is done, under Linux, with SSH keys. If you happen to have keys already stored in AWS, you can use them. Otherwise, you can create a new set, just as you can see being done below. Once you have provided a name, you will need to download the key file. This will be Privacy Enhanced Mail (pem) file, containing a certificate that has the encryption keys necessary to establish an encrypted SSH session, as well as authenticate you.

We’re almost done at this point. Your instance will start up after you have downloaded your .pem file and then clicked Launch Instances. You can’t Launch until you have downloaded the key pair, so the Launch button will remain disabled until then. As soon as you launch your instance, it will get provisioned. It takes a couple of minutes or so to start up the instance. Once that happens, it will show up as Running in your instance list. If you right-click, you can select Connect and you will get a window like the one shown below.

In my case, I’m working from a macOS system so I have an ssh client available through the command line (I use iTerm for command line access). Below, you can see changing the permissions on the key file, since ssh won’t make use of the key file unless access to it has been restricted. After that, I just ssh into the remote system. Because I’ve let Amazon do all the work for me, I don’t have to make any modifications to security policies in AWS. It took care of allowing SSH to the public-facing IP address that it allocated for me.

kilroy@binkley  ~/Downloads  chmod 400 Kali.pem

kilroy@binkley  ~/Downloads  ssh -i "Kali.pem” ec2-user@ec2-34-213-11-105.us-west-2.compute.amazonaws.com

The authenticity of host 'ec2-34-213-11-105.us-west-2.compute.amazonaws.com (34.213.11.105)' can't be established.

ECDSA key fingerprint is SHA256:Rv7rErLsH6pch8jxJc6HL+VmzTxZ3TQw7iwm1mJaLok.

Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)? yes

Warning: Permanently added 'ec2-34-213-11-105.us-west-2.compute.amazonaws.com,34.213.11.105' (ECDSA) to the list of known hosts.

Linux kali 4.17.0-kali1-amd64 #1 SMP Debian 4.17.8-1kali1 (2018-07-24) x86_64

The programs included with the Kali GNU/Linux system are free software;

the exact distribution terms for each program are described in the

individual files in /usr/share/doc/*/copyright.

Kali GNU/Linux comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY, to the extent

permitted by applicable law.

ec2-user@kali:~$

And that’s all that it takes to get a Kali instance running in AWS! Enjoy!

Password Policies

While this has been in process for a while and the guidance has been out for a while, the guidance NIST published in June related to identity management seemed long overdue. For me, this came to a head a few years ago with a client I was working with. They had the then-recommended (best practice to the rescue again) password policies in place. Strong passwords — letters, numbers, different cases, symbols, appropriate length. Passwords rotated every 30 days. No repeat password before 12 passwords had been reused. At least 7 days between password changes. Strong password policy, right? What I told them at the time was they were begging their users to write their passwords down just to keep track of their current one. That, of course, entirely defeated the purpose of the password policy to begin with.

What was even worse was that the administrators and management of the company I was working with had no idea what the purpose of the password policy was to begin with. What exactly is the purpose of rotating passwords and making sure they are incredibly complex? For a start, you make the complex so they can’t be guessed. Unfortunately, with so much horsepower readily available and with rainbow tables so easy to get hold of, even complex passwords that are 8 characters (a common minimum) may be easily cracked by a determined attacker. That’s why you have complex passwords — to make sure they can’t be guessed or determined in a brute force attack. Since it’s possible to crack them anyway, that idea is a bit behind the time.

The reason for rotating them is based on an assumption that someone is getting in using the password. If you rotate the password on a regular basis, you limit the amount of time that an attacker can stay in your system. The assumption also was that with a regular rotation scheme and lower horsepower systems, it could take as long as the rotation time to crack the password. Ultimately, it was about limiting potential access using the password. The reality is that attacks and access are far more likely to take place using social engineering attacks or other ways of gaining access without needing the password.

One of the reasons for writing this up was reading Bruce Schneier’s Crypto-Gram e-mail from this month. He quite rightly points out that the idea of password policy stemmed from attempts to try to fix the users rather than trying to actually resolve the problems that existed. As a result, we as information security professionals have spent a lot of time trying to enforce and detect lapses in security policy compliance.

This is yet another example, to me, of the solution coming before the problem. Without really understanding where the threats were (what the problem was), there was a drive to implement password policies. Worse than that, when businesses implemented strong password policies, they felt they were protected against attack. The reality is that they were left exposed because they had no idea what problem they were trying to solve and they spent time implementing and enforcing password policies rather than truly understanding where their threats and exposures were.

This is a soapbox I get on a lot. It is absolutely essential that time is spent defining and understand the problem to be solved in order to make sure that when a solution is arrived at, it is the right solution and not a red herring that makes people feel like they’ve done something.

Chasing Data Using Sleuth Kit

Working on a new set of videos for O'Reilly Media -- basically updating one of the first video titles from back when it was Infinite Skills. In the process, I had to refresh my memory on a number of things. One of them was using The Sleuth Kit tools to run through a disk image to locate the contents of a file. Sure, you could just pop it open in a browser using some commercial tool but where's the fun in that? Autopsy you say? Yeah, but ultimately, Autopsy uses The Sleuth Kit tools to begin with even if you don't see it. Why not just learn what it is that Autopsy does so you can be ahead of the game? Having said that, let's step through how you might go about this.

We're going to be working with a disk image taken from a Linux system and the partition on the disk was formatted with ext4. However, the same steps will work for a Windows disk, particularly if the partition was formatted with NTFS. Since we have a disk image and not a partition image, the first thing we need to do is determine where the partition actually starts. In order to do that, we are going to use the program mmls, which lists all of the partitions in a disk or disk image. We could also use fdisk -l to do essentially the same thing.

What we discover here is that the partition we are looking for starts at byte 2048. The other Sleuth Kit tools we will be using will need to be told what offset to start at because they are really looking for the start of the partition in order to parse the data structures that begin there. Once we know where the partition starts, we can get a list of the files that are in the partition. For this, I'm just going to get a list of active files and not worry about doing a recursive listing down through all the directories (adding a -r). We also aren't going to deleted files (adding a -d). For our purposes, it doesn't much matter whether we have those or not. We are going to use fls and we need to add a -o 2048 to indicate that the offset to where the partition starts is 2048 bytes.

We now have a listing of the small number of files that are in the root directory of this partition. What we get from this listing is whether the entry is a directory (d/d) or a regular file (r/r). The second column is the inode where the metadata for the file is located. The metadata for the file not only includes date information but also, more importantly, the data blocks that belong to the file. Those data blocks are where can get access to the contents of the file. In order to get the data blocks, we are going to use the program istat. This will give us all of the information that the inode has related to the file. Keep in mind that while you think about the file in the context of the filename, on a UFS-based system (ext inherits a lot from UFS, the UNIX File System that goes back to the 70s and 80s with BSD, the Berkeley Systems Distribution), a file is just a collection of related data blocks. We could have multiple filenames that all point to the same "file" on the disk.

Running istat, we provide the offset to the start of the partition, just as we did with fls. Additionally, we provide the image that we are searching and also the inode that we want to interrogate. You can see the results of this below.

Among other things, we can see that the inode has been allocated. It's not free space because it refers to a file. You can see the date and time information. You can also see the permissions that are associated with the file. Additionally, as I mentioned above, different filenames can point to the same set of data blocks (the same inode). The "num of links" entry indicates the number of filenames that point to this inode, and by extension, the data that the inode points to. This is where the "Direct Blocks" entry is important. The direct blocks tells us where to get the contents of the file. For this, we use the blkcat command.

Again, we have to provide the offset because blkcat expects to start with the beginning of the partition, as fls and istat do. We provide the image name then the block number where the data is located. This is followed in this case by the number of blocks we want to extract. By default, we only pull one but since all of the blocks for the file are consecutive, we can pull all of them at once. Beneath that, you can see the contents of the file.

While it's several steps, using mmls to get the partition start, fls to get a listing of files, istat to get the data block address and finally blkcat to extract the file contents, it does help to highlight how the filesystem is put together. Being able to follow this chain, no matter the file or the filesystem, will help with the understanding of the workings of a filesystem such that no matter what tool you are using, you know the process.

Password Management

Recently, there was a piece on password managers on The Today Show on NBC. The tech guy was blazing through a number of apps for phones since he has such a short period of time to cover what is apparently a lot of ground. Normally, I would have ignored such a presentation. It is generally just so much fluff, after all, relegated to the third or even fourth half hour of a morning newstainment program. Anything even remotely non-fluffy happens in at least the first hour and if it’s actually grounded in reality and based on actual, topical events, it’s in the first half hour. Here we have a short piece that’s essentially lifestyle in nature. No big deal, right? However, there was a big red flag for me that was just inaccurate that needed to be addressed.

The presenter, who shall remain nameless so I don’t besmirch his knowledge or character here, told Matt Lauer that password managers are great so you have all of your passwords (because we all use a different password for every login and Web page we use, right?) in one place. This means you don’t forget them. All you need to do is be able to get into the password manager. Here’s the rub, though. Because you have very helpfully collected them all in one place, you have made it considerably easier for an attacker. All the attacker needs to do is get into your password manager.

Not so fast, you say, as said the aforementioned presenter. You have been informed that the very strongest of encryption is in use within this password manager, making it impregnable. This is the delusion and misunderstanding when it comes to encryption. Encryption is only helpful if someone comes across a file or a disk by itself that has been encrypted. If you run across a stray disk that has been encrypted using something like the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) with a very large key, say 256 bits, you are going to have a very hard time getting into the drive, unless the key has been somehow attached to the drive. And this is where we have a problem with devices and files that have been encrypted.

In essence, the key is stored with the encrypted data. All someone needs to do is gain access to the password manager using your credentials and the data is unlocked. Just as it would be for you, because the app has no idea it’s not you. Password managers that use a single password, regardless of how strong it is, are vulnerable to attack because all someone needs to do is get that one password and they have your entire cache of passwords. That’s it. It doesn’t matter whether then underlying file is encrypted. Or even if each individual password is encrypted. The passwords will need to be presented to you in the clear if they are to be of any value so if you can authenticate to the password manager, so can the attacker.

Aha, you say! You use your fingerprint. Biometrics to the rescue. The problem with that particular theory is that while your fingerprint may be yours and yours alone, your fingerprint can be acquired. And used against you. Fake fingerprints can be used to fool fingerprint scanners on mobile devices and frankly most any device looking for your fingerprint. You use your fingerprint to get into your password manager but you leave your fingerprints all over the place. It’s not that challenging to acquire your fingerprint and if an attacker can get your phone — either because you left it on your desk while you stepped out of your office for a moment or because they simply stole it from your pocket or purse — they can get access to your passwords from your password manager.

This is not to say that you shouldn’t use a password manager. A determined attacker is probably going to find a way to get your passwords. If it’s not you, it will be someone else and they may get your password by gaining access to a system by way of that someone else. However, if someone gains clear text access to your passwords, it won’t matter a bit how strong they are. You can use a 32-character passphrase with upper and lower case, numbers and symbols. If it’s stored in your password manager and an attacker gets access to your password manager, strength of password doesn’t matter.

If your password manager stores your passwords on an Internet-based storage medium (sometimes called “in the cloud,” though the term is misleading to say the least), there is now a second way an attacker can get access to your data. This is especially true if there is a Web portal for you to look at your passwords or pull them down to use in Web forms through your browser. Now your fingerprint is no longer in play. It’s just down to that username and password combination.

Ideally, sites you visit regularly that store data you actually care about (aside from the throwaway e-mail address you use to log into sites you don’t much care about, for instance) would support two-factor authentication. This means a username and password (something you know) as well as either a soft token (Google Authenticator, Facebook Code Generator) or a text message to your cell phone (something you have). These two factors together can help protect your login access by requiring the attacker to both know your password and either have your phone or be able to intercept data like a text message.

Being aware of the potential challenges of various applications can help you make informed decisions. If you don’t understand what you are signing up for, you are not engaged in informed consent and you certainly are not engaged in managing the risk.

On Fear

“Mine is the last voice that you will ever hear. Do not be afraid.” Perhaps apropos that this came up in a song tonight. It got me thinking again about something that has been troubling me for quite a while. The context for the quote is that it came out of some civil defense preparedness training films in England in the late 70s and early 80s. If you are a fan of 80s music, and especially the 12” or remix, you may be familiar with the quote as being a sample used in remixes of Frankie Goes to Hollywood’s Two Tribes. Sometimes, it’s just the first sentence and sometime’s it’s the whole thing. The idea of using it here was to drive the point home about what the song was about. Two Tribes is essentially a political song talking about the Cold War that was probably at its height when the song was recorded with a trigger-happy Reagan in the White House and an inscrutable and rapidly rotating collection of Soviet premiers in the Kremlin. The uncertainty and the us vs. them mentality was either at its worst or it just seemed it with the rhetoric being broadcast around the world as cable TV made everything more immediate.

The Cold War was just another way to bring people in line with a particular way of thinking. If you drive people to fear the enemy with a lot of language about how they are coming over to take everything away from you and kill everyone, you can get those people to get behind a lot of policies that may not be in their best interests. As it turned out in the end, the Soviets really had no ability to do anything at all to come after us. Their technology and their infrastructure was completely inadequate and they had their hands full with their neighbors. The Russian bear, as it turns out, had no bite. Same thing with Iraq and Saddam Hussein. The more things change, the more they stay the same.

We continue to be afraid of everything, simply because no one is asking the right questions. Why are you voting for the candidate you are voting for this fall? Because the other candidate would be worse. The entire campaign for both candidates will likely be entirely based around how bad the other one will be. They are using our instinct for fear of the unknown against us. How does that help us get ahead in the end? How do we ever focus on the right answers when all we are encouraged to do is be afraid of everyone else? Of course, the news media doesn’t help at all here. You get people afraid and they are more inclined to watch your product so they can know all the ways they need to be afraid. Fear almost seems to be addictive.

I see the same thing in the way we approach the problem of information security. If you present even people who have experience in the information technology (IT) field about something relating to infosec, they will often a) jump straight to a solution even before they’ve heard or understood the problem, and b) base their decision in fear of what is going to happen. Rather than taking a rational and logical approach, the immediate instinct appears to be “what is the worst thing I can imagine happening and multiply that by 10?” It’s utterly illogical and irrational. You can’t make a case for protecting yourself by saying “all the badness!!!” Hyperbole simply doesn’t help make your case. You can’t scare a business into spending a lot of money on people and technology you have no justification for.

One of my favorite questions when I do anything with risk in an online class is just having students identify a risk from their daily lives. It takes the whole concept out of the technology space. From this perspective, and if you look at the dictionary, risk is defined as exposure to the potential for loss or damage. We are talking about potential, which means you factor in probability to really get an idea of risk. I’ve had students who say that driving is a risk because they could die. Well, you’ve jumped to an extreme situation but what is the likelihood of that. Just because death may be involved doesn’t make it more of a risk. What it means is that is an outcome that you are the most afraid of but that doesn’t mean the risk increases because the probability of you dying on the road is really quite low. Think about the number of hours you have been driving over the course of your life and you haven’t died yet. The vast majority of people on the roads have an accumulation of driving time the measures in … years? They haven’t died. This means that it’s a very low probability, which dramatically lowers the overall risk.

Jumping straight to the thing that could lead to something you really fear is not an understanding of risk. Focusing on fear is how we currently live our lives in the modern world, though. It’s what we are encouraged to do. Look at the news. Zika virus!! Be afraid!! It’s coming to your neighborhood real soon now!! Think about all of the incidents that the news has incited us into a complete lather about going back decades. The Communists are coming! (they didn’t) The Communists are infiltrating our government! (they didn’t in reality and certainly no more so than we did in the other direction, so perhaps a bit hypocritical) There are razor blades in the apples you get at Halloween! (there weren’t) The Advil is poisoned! (or was it Tylenol? I forget. either way, it wasn’t) We are programmed to react to fear. It’s a pretty serious motivator.

Wouldn’t life be so much easier if we just opted to not react everytime someone attempted to provoke us to fear? Wouldn’t it be better if you were able to think critically about whether it’s realistic or probably and, thus, something to actually be concerned enough to do something about? A lack of understanding is not a risk and also not an opportunity to be afraid. It’s just an opportunity to educate yourself.

Analyzing Virtual Images

The Sleuth Kit can be used to investigate disks and disk images but the images don’t actually have to be copied from a real, physical disk. You can analyze a virtual image that you have created just as easily. The Sleuth Kit includes a number of very useful command line utilities that can be run on Windows, Linux and Mac OS X systems. For our purposes, this is being done on a Mac OS X system where the program was built using the Xcode Command Line Utilities that need to be installed before you can build The Sleuth Kit. First, let’s take a look at an image that was created on a Windows system using diskpart to create a virtual disk image and then format it. Before we do anything, we need to take a look at the partition table in the image to see where the partitions are. Without that information, we can’t go much further.

You can see from the screen capture above that we have used the mmls utility from The Sleuth Kit to get the partition table. mmls tells us that this is a DOS partition table. We aren’t restricted to the type of partition table that’s on the disk, though. Let’s take a look at another virtual disk image that was created using the Mac OS X Disk Utility program. Using mmls on that, we can see a GUID partition table.

In either case, you need to locate the partition that you want to investigate. In order to get file system statistics, we can use fsstat but we need to point fsstat at the actual partition using -o to indicate the offset within the image. In our case, we are looking at the fifth slot from mmls, which has a starting offset of 40 so that’s what we tell fsstat.

From this, we can see that it’s an HFS+ file system that was last mounted by Mac OS X and it was journaled, meaning that the operating system was keeping track of changes to the filesystem in case anything bad happened so the changes could be redone to reconstruct a clean copy of the the data, including the metadata indicating where all of the files were located. While this is all very interesting, what we probably want to get at is the actual files within the image. For that, we can use fls. This will give us a file listing of the partition. Let’s go back to the Windows image from earlier, since it had a different partition type, file system and offset. Looking at the mmls output above, the third slot is the only one that actually carries a filesystem, so that’s the one we will use. Again, we need to provide the offset to get to the actual filesystem and in this case, the offset is 128.

Once we have the list of files that were stored in the file table, which in this case is the Master File Table (MFT) from the NT File System (NTFS), we can do a bit more digging into files if we chose to. What you see here are the entries within the file table only and with the MFT, there is a lot more information to be gathered. First, we need to know where to look. Find the entry for Diskpart1.png above. We can see that this is a regular file. There are two r’s there indicating that the filename and the metadata for the file agree. These would normally be identical, though if a file were deleted you may see a difference between them. Keep in mind that if a file has been deleted, it still remains on the disk — both the data and, in some cases, the metadata within the filesystem. There is then a chain of three numbers. The first indicates which entry in the file table we want to look at. The 128-1 indicates that this is an NTFS entry and we can ignore that. Where we want to look next is the entry in the MFT and we can get to that using istat.

The istat utility extracts and decodes all of the information from the MFT entry for that file. You can see the filename and then the other attributes associated with it, including the $DATA attribute at the bottom. This attribute includes a list of blocks where we should be looking for the file data. The metadata (filename, permissions, access dates and times, etc) is kept entirely separate in most cases from the actual data that’s contained in the file. If all you did was to gather the contents of the file, you wouldn’t have the filename. If all you did was look at the metadata, you wouldn’t have any idea what was in the file. The two are separate but both necessary. Our starting point to gather the data for the file is in block 8346. We can use blkcat to extract the data from that block. According to fsstat for this virtual disk, we have a cluster/block size of 4096 bytes. blkcat will take care of that for us and only grab a single cluster.

Just as with the other tools, you have to tell blkcat where the actual partition starts by providing an offset within the file. This tells blkcat where the filesystem itself is, meaning the BIOS Parameter Block from which it can locate the file table. When you look at the output here, which has been piped into xxd to do the ASCII decoding for us, you can see that this is a PNG file. We knew that from the filename but filenames can lie. You are not required to use .png as a file extension for a PNG file. Windows systems maintain a list of file associations so they know what programs to launch when you want to just open the file from the Windows Explorer. That’s simply a convenience. As a result, it’s always good to verify that what you have in terms of data is what the filename and file extension tell you that you have.

One thing we didn’t look at here is the case where you may have deleted files. Typically, if a file is deleted, you would see * between the r/r and the file table entry. If you see that, it doesn’t mean the data is gone. It just means that the file has been flagged as deleted and so the entries can be recycled at some point.

Creating Disk Images

Let’s say you want to play around with disk analysis but you really want something small to use. You just want to tinker around with some forensics tools, why do you want to play around with even a multi-gigabyte USB stick? It’s much easier to just create a small disk image to use, though you won’t be able to put many files on it. If you don’t need that, there are easy ways to create disk images on each of the three primary operating systems — Windows, Linux and Mac OS X. Of course, the quickest way is to use a virtual machine. Using a virtual machine, you can add a second hard disk that you can make use of from inside a guest operating system that you are running your forensics tools on. Using Parallels, virtualization software for Mac OS X, you can add an additional hard drive by customizing the virtual machine, as you can see below.

If you don’t want to use virtualization but just use the operating system you came with, you can use tools that are already built in. On the Windows side, you would use DiskPart. DiskPart is a command line program. Launching the Command Prompt program, found in various places in the menus, depending on the version of Windows you are running from. DiskPart can be used to create a virtual image. DiskPart uses an interactive shell to issue commands. As a result, you start up DiskPart and it dumps you into the shell. Once you are there, you tell DiskPart to create a virtual disk image, as you can see below.

Once the virtual disk is created, we have to attach it to the system. Once it’s attached, you create a partition, assign it a drive letter and format it. Once you have done all of that, as you can see in the capture below, you have a working disk that is attached to your Windows system with a drive letter and it will show up in Windows Explorer. Once you have created the partition and assigned the letter, Windows will pop up a message saying there is an uninitialized disk and would you like to initialize it. You can initialize it using the dialog box or just type format in DiskPart and you have a formatted drive that is really just a file.

Using Linux requires multiple utilities as opposed to the single utility that Windows provides. Using Linux, we can create an empty file using dd. In the screen capture below, you can see dd creating a file using /dev/zero as the input source. This is a logical device that just generates 0s. We set the block size to be 512 which is mostly meaningless other than it tells us the size in conjunction with the count. 512 bytes * 200000 gives us a file that’s roughly 100M. Once we have the file, we can partition it just as you would a regular disk device.

As soon as we have partitioned it, we need to format it. Before we do that, we need to create a device file. We do that using losetup. Since there was already a loop device, the first thing is to delete the existing one using losetup -d as you can see in the screen capture below. We need to skip by the master boot record and the reserved sectors, which we do using —offset. Then you provide losetup with a device file, which we are calling /dev/loop0, since devices belong in the /dev directory. Once you have the device setup, you can format and mount it. You can format it with any format that you would like but in the screen capture below, you can see that it is formatted using the ext4 filesystem. As soon as we have formatted it, it’s ready for use but we need to mount it to a mountpoint within the filesystem. In the example below, we’ve mounted it to /mnt. As soon as it’s mounted, you can use it just as you would any other directory and start copying files to it, though keep in mind that in our example we are limited to 100M.

Mac OS X has Disk Utility, which is a graphical program that can create virtual disk images which you can then mount. You can see the creation of a new disk image in the screen capture below.

Once you have selected new image, you will be prompted for the size, format, encryption, read/write properties and the name. You can also specify whether you want to use a GUID partition map or master boot record partition table. The moment you have created the disk image on any of the operating systems you can start writing to the image as though it were a regular disk and you can also start to perform a forensic analysis using a variety of forensics tools. However, that’s another write-up so stay tuned.